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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Systems engineering</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Systems_engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systems engineering (disambiguation)">Systems engineering (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Systems engineering</b> is an <a href="Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field of <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">engineering management</a> that focuses on how to design, integrate, and manage <a href="Complex_system" title="Complex system">complex systems</a> over their <a href="Enterprise_life_cycle" title="Enterprise life cycle">life cycles</a>. At its core, systems engineering utilizes <a href="Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">systems thinking</a> principles to organize this <a href="Body_of_knowledge" title="Body of knowledge">body of knowledge</a>. The individual outcome of such efforts, an <b>engineered system</b>, can be defined as a combination of components that work in <a href="Synergy" title="Synergy">synergy</a> to collectively perform a useful <a href="Function_(engineering)" title="Function (engineering)">function</a>.

</p><p>Issues such as <a href="Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">requirements engineering</a>, <a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">reliability</a>, <a href="Logistics" title="Logistics">logistics</a>, coordination of different teams, testing and evaluation, maintainability, and many other <a href="Discipline_(academia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discipline (academia)">disciplines</a>, aka <a href="List_of_system_quality_attributes" title="List of system quality attributes">"ilities"</a>, necessary for successful <a href="System_design" class="mw-redirect" title="System design">system design</a>, development, <a href="Implementation" title="Implementation">implementation</a>, and ultimate decommission become more difficult when dealing with large or complex <a href="Project" title="Project">projects</a>. Systems engineering deals with work processes, optimization methods, and <a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a> tools in such projects. It overlaps technical and human-centered disciplines such as <a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>, production systems engineering, <a href="Process_systems_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Process systems engineering">process systems engineering</a>, <a href="Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a>, <a href="Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">manufacturing engineering</a>, <a href="Production_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Production engineering">production engineering</a>, <a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">control engineering</a>, <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>, <a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, <a href="Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, <a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a>, <a href="Organizational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational studies">organizational studies</a>, <a href="Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a> and <a href="Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a>. Systems engineering ensures that all likely aspects of a project or system are considered and integrated into a whole.

</p><p>The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is quite unlike a <a href="Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> process. A manufacturing process is focused on repetitive activities that achieve high-quality outputs with minimum cost and time. The systems engineering process must begin by discovering the real problems that need to be resolved and identifying the most probable or highest-impact failures that can occur. Systems engineering involves finding solutions to these problems.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The term <i>systems engineering</i> can be traced back to <a href="Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The need to identify and manipulate the properties of a system as a whole, which in complex engineering projects may greatly differ from the sum of the parts' properties, motivated various industries, especially those developing systems for the U.S. military, to apply the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>When it was no longer possible to rely on design evolution to improve upon a system and the existing tools were not sufficient to meet growing demands, new methods began to be developed that addressed the complexity directly.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continuing evolution of systems engineering comprises the development and identification of new methods and modeling techniques. These methods aid in a better comprehension of the design and developmental control of engineering systems as they grow more complex. Popular tools that are often used in the systems engineering context were developed during these times, including <a href="Universal_Systems_Language" title="Universal Systems Language">Universal Systems Language</a> (USL), <a href="Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">Unified Modeling Language</a> (UML), <a href="Quality_function_deployment" title="Quality function deployment">Quality function deployment</a> (QFD), and <a href="Integration_DEFinition" class="mw-redirect" title="Integration DEFinition">Integration Definition</a> (IDEF).

</p><p>In 1990, a professional society for systems engineering, the <i>National Council on Systems Engineering</i> (NCOSE), was founded by representatives from a number of U.S. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to address the need for improvements in systems engineering practices and education. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers outside of the U.S., the name of the organization was changed to the <a href="International_Council_on_Systems_Engineering" title="International Council on Systems Engineering">International Council on Systems Engineering</a> (INCOSE) in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schools in several countries offer graduate programs in systems engineering, and <a href="Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">continuing education</a> options are also available for practicing engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-edu_dir_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edu_dir-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concept">Concept</h2></div>

<th style="background:#ccc;">Some definitions

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<td style="text-align: left;"><a href="Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a>, considered by some to be a founder of modern systems engineering, defined the discipline as: "...a branch of engineering which concentrates on the design and application of the whole as distinct from the parts, looking at a problem in its entirety, taking account of all the facets and all the variables and linking the social to the technological."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — <i>Conquering Complexity, 2005.</i>

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<td style="text-align: left;">"An interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful systems"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — <i><a href="INCOSE" class="mw-redirect" title="INCOSE">INCOSE</a> handbook, 2004.</i>

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<td style="text-align: left;">"System engineering is a robust approach to the design, creation, and operation of systems. In simple terms, the approach consists of identification and quantification of system goals, creation of alternative system design concepts, performance of design trades, selection and implementation of the best design, verification that the design is properly built and integrated, and post-implementation assessment of how well the system meets (or met) the goals."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — <i><a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Systems Engineering Handbook, 1995.</i>

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<td style="text-align: left;">"The Art and Science of creating effective systems, using whole system, whole life principles" OR "The Art and Science of creating optimal solution systems to complex issues and problems"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — <i>Derek Hitchins, Prof. of Systems Engineering, former president of INCOSE (UK), 2007.</i>

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<td style="text-align: left;">"The concept from the engineering standpoint is the evolution of the engineering scientist (i.e. the scientific generalist who maintains a broad outlook). The method is that of the team approach. On large-scale-system problems, teams of scientists and engineers, generalists as well as specialists, exert their joint efforts to find a solution and physically realize it...The technique has been variously called the systems approach or the team development method."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — <i>Harry H. Goode & Robert E. Machol, 1957.</i>

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<td style="text-align: left;">"The systems engineering method recognizes each system is an integrated whole even though composed of diverse, specialized structures and sub-functions. It further recognizes that any system has a number of objectives and that the balance between them may differ widely from system to system. The methods seek to optimize the overall system functions according to the weighted objectives and to achieve maximum compatibility of its parts."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — <i>Systems Engineering Tools by Harold Chestnut, 1965.</i>

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<p>Systems engineering signifies only an approach and, more recently, a discipline in engineering. The aim of education in systems engineering is to formalize various approaches simply and in doing so, identify new methods and research opportunities similar to that which occurs in other fields of engineering. As an approach, systems engineering is holistic and interdisciplinary in flavor.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_traditional_scope">Origins and traditional scope</h3></div>

<p>The traditional scope of engineering embraces the conception, design, development, production, and operation of physical systems. Systems engineering, as originally conceived, falls within this scope. "Systems engineering", in this sense of the term, refers to the building of engineering concepts.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_to_a_broader_scope">Evolution to a broader scope</h3></div>

<p>The use of the term "systems engineer" has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of "systems" and of engineering processes. This evolution of the definition has been a subject of ongoing controversy,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term continues to apply to both the narrower and a broader scope.

</p><p>Traditional systems engineering was seen as a branch of engineering in the classical sense, that is, as applied only to physical systems, such as spacecraft and aircraft. More recently, systems engineering has evolved to take on a broader meaning especially when humans were seen as an essential component of a system. <a href="Peter_Checkland" title="Peter Checkland">Peter Checkland</a>, for example, captures the broader meaning of systems engineering by stating that 'engineering' "can be read in its general sense; you can engineer a meeting or a political agreement."<sup id="cite_ref-Checkland_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Checkland-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10">: 10 </span></sup>

</p><p>Consistent with the broader scope of systems engineering, the <a href="Systems_Engineering_Body_of_Knowledge" title="Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge">Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge</a> (SEBoK)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has defined three types of systems engineering:

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<ul><li>Product Systems Engineering (PSE) is the traditional systems engineering focused on the design of physical systems consisting of hardware and software.</li>

<li>Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) pertains to the view of enterprises, that is, organizations or combinations of organizations, as systems.</li>

<li>Service Systems Engineering (SSE) has to do with the engineering of service systems. Checkland defines a service system as a system which is conceived as serving another system.<sup id="cite_ref-Checkland_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Checkland-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most civil infrastructure systems are service systems.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holistic_view">Holistic view</h3></div>

<p>Systems engineering focuses on analyzing and <a href="Requirements_elicitation" title="Requirements elicitation">eliciting</a> customer needs and required functionality early in the <a href="Development_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Development cycle">development cycle</a>, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem, the <a href="System_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="System lifecycle">system lifecycle</a>. This includes fully understanding all of the <a href="Project_stakeholders" class="mw-redirect" title="Project stakeholders">stakeholders</a> involved. Oliver et al. claim that the systems engineering process can be decomposed into:

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<ul><li>A <i>Systems Engineering Technical Process</i></li>

<li>A <i>Systems Engineering Management Process</i></li></ul>

<p>Within Oliver's model, the goal of the Management Process is to organize the technical effort in the lifecycle, while the Technical Process includes <i>assessing available information</i>, <i>defining effectiveness measures</i>, to <i>create a behavior model</i>, <i>create a structure model</i>, <i>perform trade-off analysis</i>, and <i>create sequential build & test plan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Okk_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okk-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Depending on their application, although there are several models that are used in the industry, all of them aim to identify the relation between the various stages mentioned above and incorporate feedback. Examples of such models include the <a href="Waterfall_model" title="Waterfall model">Waterfall model</a> and the <a href="VEE_model" class="mw-redirect" title="VEE model">VEE model</a> (also called the V model).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interdisciplinary_field">Interdisciplinary field</h3></div>

<p>System development often requires contribution from diverse technical disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By providing a systems (<a href="Holistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistic">holistic</a>) view of the development effort, systems engineering helps mold all the technical contributors into a unified team effort, forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation and, in some cases, to termination and disposal. In an acquisition, the holistic integrative discipline combines contributions and balances tradeoffs among cost, schedule, and performance while maintaining an acceptable level of risk covering the entire life cycle of the item.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>This perspective is often replicated in educational programs, in that systems engineering courses are taught by faculty from other engineering departments, which helps create an interdisciplinary environment.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Managing_complexity">Managing complexity</h3></div>

<p>The need for systems engineering arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects, in turn exponentially increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore the unreliability of the design. When speaking in this context, complexity incorporates not only engineering systems but also the logical human organization of data. At the same time, a system can become more complex due to an increase in size as well as with an increase in the amount of data, variables, or the number of fields that are involved in the design. The <a href="International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> is an example of such a system.

</p>

<p>The development of smarter control <a href="Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a>, <a href="Microprocessor_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Microprocessor design">microprocessor design</a>, and <a href="Environmental_systems_analysis" title="Environmental systems analysis">analysis of environmental systems</a> also come within the purview of systems engineering. Systems engineering encourages the use of tools and methods to better comprehend and manage complexity in systems. Some examples of these tools can be seen here:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><i><a href="System_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="System architecture">System architecture</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="System_model" class="mw-redirect" title="System model">System model</a>, <a href="Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">modeling</a>, and <a href="Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Mathematical optimization</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Statistical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical analysis">Statistical analysis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">Decision making</a></i></li></ul>

<p>Taking an <a href="Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since the <a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> of and interaction among system components is not always immediately <a href="Well_defined" class="mw-redirect" title="Well defined">well defined</a> or understood. Defining and characterizing such <a href="System" title="System">systems</a> and subsystems and the interactions among them is one of the goals of systems engineering. In doing so, the gap that exists between informal requirements from users, <a href="Sysop" title="Sysop">operators</a>, <a href="Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> organizations, and <a href="Technical_specifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Technical specifications">technical specifications</a> is successfully bridged.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope">Scope</h3></div>

</p><p>The principles of systems engineering – holism, emergent behavior, boundary, et al. – can be applied to any system, complex or otherwise, provided <a href="Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">systems thinking</a> is employed at all levels.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides defense and aerospace, many information and technology-based companies, <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a> firms, and industries in the field of <a href="Electronics_%26_Communications_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics & Communications Engineering">electronics & communications</a> require systems engineers as part of their team.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>An analysis by the INCOSE Systems Engineering Center of Excellence (SECOE) indicates that optimal effort spent on systems engineering is about 15–20% of the total project effort.<sup id="cite_ref-SEvalue_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEvalue-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, studies have shown that systems engineering essentially leads to a reduction in costs among other benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-SEvalue_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEvalue-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, no quantitative survey at a larger scale encompassing a wide variety of industries has been conducted until recently. Such studies are underway to determine the effectiveness and quantify the benefits of systems engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Systems engineering encourages the use of <a href="Modeling_and_simulation" title="Modeling and simulation">modeling and simulation</a> to validate assumptions or theories on systems and the interactions within them.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Use of methods that allow early detection of possible failures, in <a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a>, are integrated into the design process. At the same time, decisions made at the beginning of a project whose consequences are not clearly understood can have enormous implications later in the life of a system, and it is the task of the modern systems engineer to explore these issues and make critical decisions. No method guarantees today's decisions will still be valid when a system goes into service years or decades after first conceived. However, there are techniques that support the process of systems engineering. Examples include soft systems methodology, <a href="Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a>'s <a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a> method, and the <a href="Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">Unified Modeling Language</a> (UML)—all currently being explored, evaluated, and developed to support the engineering decision process.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_systems_engineering_universities" title="List of systems engineering universities">List of systems engineering universities</a></div>

<p>Education in systems engineering is often seen as an extension to the regular engineering courses,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reflecting the industry attitude that engineering students need a foundational background in one of the traditional engineering disciplines (e.g. <a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a>, <a href="Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a>, <a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, <a href="Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a>, <a href="Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">manufacturing engineering</a>, <a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>, <a href="Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>)—plus practical, real-world experience to be effective as systems engineers. Undergraduate university programs explicitly in systems engineering are growing in number but remain uncommon, the degrees including such material are most often presented as a <a href="Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a> in Industrial Engineering. Typically programs (either by themselves or in combination with interdisciplinary study) are offered beginning at the graduate level in both academic and professional tracks, resulting in the grant of either a <a href="Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">MS</a>/<a href="MEng" class="mw-redirect" title="MEng">MEng</a> or <a href="Ph.D." class="mw-redirect" title="Ph.D.">Ph.D.</a>/<a href="EngD" class="mw-redirect" title="EngD">EngD</a> degree.

</p><p>INCOSE, in collaboration with the Systems Engineering Research Center at <a href="Stevens_Institute_of_Technology" title="Stevens Institute of Technology">Stevens Institute of Technology</a> maintains a regularly updated directory of worldwide academic programs at suitably accredited institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-edu_dir_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edu_dir-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2017, it lists over 140 universities in North America offering more than 400 undergraduate and graduate programs in systems engineering. Widespread institutional acknowledgment of the field as a distinct subdiscipline is quite recent; the 2009 edition of the same publication reported the number of such schools and programs at only 80 and 165, respectively.

</p><p>Education in systems engineering can be taken as <i>systems-centric</i> or <i>domain-centric</i>:

</p>

<ul><li><i>Systems-centric</i> programs treat systems engineering as a separate discipline and most of the courses are taught focusing on systems engineering principles and practice.</li>

<li><i>Domain-centric</i> programs offer systems engineering as an option that can be exercised with another major field in engineering.</li></ul>

<p>Both of these patterns strive to educate the systems engineer who is able to oversee interdisciplinary projects with the depth required of a core engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systems_engineering_topics">Systems engineering topics</h2></div>

<p>Systems engineering tools are <a href="Strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategies">strategies</a>, procedures, and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technique" class="extiw external" title="wikt:technique">techniques</a> that aid in performing systems engineering on a <a href="Project" title="Project">project</a> or <a href="Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">product</a>. The purpose of these tools varies from database management, graphical browsing, simulation, and reasoning, to document production, neutral import/export, and more.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="System">System</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="System" title="System">System</a></div>

<p>There are many definitions of what a <a href="System" title="System">system</a> is in the field of systems engineering. Below are a few authoritative definitions:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="ANSI" class="mw-redirect" title="ANSI">ANSI</a>/<a href="Electronic_Industries_Alliance" title="Electronic Industries Alliance">EIA</a>-632-1999: "An aggregation of end products and enabling products to achieve a given purpose."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Defense_Acquisition_University" title="Defense Acquisition University">DAU</a> Systems Engineering Fundamentals: "an integrated composite of people, products, and processes that provide a capability to satisfy a stated need or objective."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a> Std 1220-1998: "A set or arrangement of elements and processes that are related and whose behavior satisfies customer/operational needs and provides for life cycle sustainment of the products."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook: "homogeneous entity that exhibits predefined behavior in the real world and is composed of heterogeneous parts that do not individually exhibit that behavior and an integrated configuration of components and/or subsystems."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>INCOSE: "A system is a construct or collection of different elements that together produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, and documents; that is, all things required to produce systems-level results. The results include system-level qualities, properties, characteristics, functions, behavior, and performance. The value added by the system as a whole, beyond that contributed independently by the parts, is primarily created by the relationship among the parts; that is, how they are interconnected."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="ISO/IEC" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO/IEC">ISO/IEC</a> 15288:2008: "A combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more stated purposes."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Systems Engineering Handbook: "(1) The combination of elements that function together to produce the capability to meet a need. The elements include all hardware, software, equipment, facilities, personnel, processes, and procedures needed for this purpose. (2) The end product (which performs operational functions) and enabling products (which provide life-cycle support services to the operational end products) that make up a system."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_engineering_processes">Systems engineering processes</h3></div>

<p>Systems engineering processes encompass all creative, manual, and technical activities necessary to define the product and which need to be carried out to convert a system definition to a sufficiently detailed system design specification for product manufacture and deployment. Design and development of a system can be divided into four stages, each with different definitions:<sup id="cite_ref-lienig_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lienig-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>Task definition (informative definition)</li>

<li>Conceptual stage (cardinal definition)</li>

<li>Design stage (formative definition)</li>

<li>Implementation stage (manufacturing definition)</li></ul>

<p>Depending on their application, tools are used for various stages of the systems engineering process:<sup id="cite_ref-SEF01_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEF01-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Using_models">Using models</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Abstract_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract model">Abstract model</a></div>

<p><a href="Abstract_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract model">Models</a> play important and diverse roles in systems engineering. A model can be defined in several

ways, including:<sup id="cite_ref-NASA95_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA95-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>An abstraction of reality designed to answer specific questions about the real world</li>

<li>An imitation, analog, or representation of a real-world process or structure; or</li>

<li>A conceptual, mathematical, or physical tool to assist a decision-maker.</li></ul>

<p>Together, these definitions are broad enough to encompass physical engineering models used in the verification of a system design, as well as schematic models like a <a href="Functional_flow_block_diagram" title="Functional flow block diagram">functional flow block diagram</a> and mathematical (i.e. quantitative) models used in the trade study process. This section focuses on the last.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA95_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA95-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The main reason for using <a href="Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> and <a href="Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">diagrams</a> in trade studies is to provide estimates of system effectiveness, performance or technical attributes, and cost from a set of known or estimable quantities. Typically, a collection of separate models is needed to provide all of these outcome variables. The heart of any mathematical model is a set of meaningful quantitative relationships among its inputs and outputs. These relationships can be as simple as adding up constituent quantities to obtain a total, or as complex as a set of <a href="Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a> describing the trajectory of a spacecraft in a <a href="Gravitational_field" title="Gravitational field">gravitational field</a>. Ideally, the relationships express causality, not just correlation.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA95_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA95-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, key to successful systems engineering activities are also the methods with which these models are efficiently and effectively managed and used to simulate the systems. However, diverse domains often present recurring problems of modeling and simulation for systems engineering, and new advancements are aiming to cross-fertilize methods among distinct scientific and engineering communities, under the title of 'Modeling & Simulation-based Systems Engineering'.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modeling_formalisms_and_graphical_representations">Modeling formalisms and graphical representations</h3></div>

<p>Initially, when the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a complex problem, graphic representations of a system are used to communicate a system's <a href="Functional_requirement" title="Functional requirement">functional</a> and data requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common graphical representations include:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Functional_flow_block_diagram" title="Functional flow block diagram">Functional flow block diagram</a> (FFBD)</li>

<li><a href="Model-based_design" title="Model-based design">Model-based design</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_flow_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Data flow diagram">Data flow diagram</a> (DFD)</li>

<li><a href="N2_chart" title="N2 chart">N2 chart</a></li>

<li><a href="IDEF0" title="IDEF0">IDEF0 diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Use_case" title="Use case">Use case diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Sequence_diagram" title="Sequence diagram">Sequence diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_diagram" title="Block diagram">Block diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Signal-flow_graph" title="Signal-flow graph">Signal-flow graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_Systems_Language#Formalism_for_a_theory_of_control" title="Universal Systems Language">USL function maps and type maps</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_architecture_framework" title="Enterprise architecture framework">Enterprise architecture frameworks</a></li></ul>

<p>A graphical representation relates the various subsystems or parts of a system through functions, data, or interfaces. Any or each of the above methods is used in an industry based on its requirements. For instance, the N2 chart may be used where interfaces between systems are important. Part of the design phase is to create <a href="Structural_model_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural model (software)">structural</a> and <a href="Behavioral_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral model">behavioral models</a> of the system.

</p><p>Once the requirements are understood, it is now the responsibility of a systems engineer to refine them and to determine, along with other engineers, the best technology for a job. At this point starting with a trade study, systems engineering encourages the use of weighted choices to determine the best option. A <a href="Decision_matrix" title="Decision matrix">decision matrix</a>, or Pugh method, is one way (QFD is another) to make this choice while considering all criteria that are important. The trade study in turn informs the design, which again affects graphic representations of the system (without changing the requirements). In an SE process, this stage represents the iterative step that is carried out until a feasible solution is found. A decision matrix is often populated using techniques such as statistical analysis, reliability analysis, system dynamics (<a href="Feedback_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback control">feedback control</a>), and optimization methods.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_tools">Other tools</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Systems_Modeling_Language">Systems Modeling Language</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Systems_Modeling_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems Modeling Language">Systems Modeling Language</a></div>

<p><a href="Systems_Modeling_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems Modeling Language">Systems Modeling Language</a> (SysML), a modeling language used for systems engineering applications, supports the specification, analysis, design, verification and validation of a broad range of complex systems.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lifecycle_Modeling_Language">Lifecycle Modeling Language</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Lifecycle_Modeling_Language" title="Lifecycle Modeling Language">Lifecycle Modeling Language</a></div>

<p><a href="Lifecycle_Modeling_Language" title="Lifecycle Modeling Language">Lifecycle Modeling Language</a> (LML), is an open-standard modeling language designed for systems engineering that supports the full lifecycle: conceptual, utilization, support, and retirement stages.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fields_and_sub-fields">Related fields and sub-fields</h2></div>

<p>Many related fields may be considered tightly coupled to systems engineering. The following areas have contributed to the development of systems engineering as a distinct entity:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_systems_engineering">Cognitive systems engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cognitive_systems_engineering" title="Cognitive systems engineering">Cognitive systems engineering</a></div>

<p>Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a specific approach to the description and analysis of <a href="Human-machine_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-machine system">human-machine systems</a> or <a href="Sociotechnical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociotechnical systems">sociotechnical systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three main themes of CSE are how humans cope with complexity, how work is accomplished by the use of <a href="Artifact_(software_development)" title="Artifact (software development)">artifacts</a>, and how human-machine systems and socio-technical systems can be described as joint cognitive systems. CSE has since its beginning become a recognized scientific discipline, sometimes also referred to as <a href="Cognitive_engineering" title="Cognitive engineering">cognitive engineering</a>. The concept of a Joint Cognitive System (JCS) has in particular become widely used as a way of understanding how complex socio-technical systems can be described with varying degrees of resolution. The more than 20 years of experience with CSE has been described extensively.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Configuration_management">Configuration management</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">Configuration management</a></div>

<p>Like systems engineering, <a href="Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">configuration management</a> as practiced in the <a href="Defence_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence industry">defense</a> and <a href="Aerospace_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace industry">aerospace industry</a> is a broad systems-level practice. The field parallels the taskings of systems engineering; where systems engineering deals with requirements development, allocation to development items and verification, configuration management deals with requirements capture, traceability to the development item, and audit of development item to ensure that it has achieved the desired functionality and outcomes that systems engineering and/or Test and Verification Engineering have obtained and proven through objective testing.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_engineering">Control engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> and its design and implementation of <a href="Control_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Control systems">control systems</a>, used extensively in nearly every industry, is a large sub-field of systems engineering. The cruise control on an automobile and the guidance system for a ballistic missile are two examples. Control systems theory is an active field of applied mathematics involving the investigation of solution spaces and the development of new methods for the analysis of the control process.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_engineering">Industrial engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a> is a branch of <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> that concerns the development, improvement, implementation, and evaluation of integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, material, and process. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict, and evaluate results obtained from such systems.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_Systems_Engineering">Production Systems Engineering</h3></div>

<p>Production Systems Engineering (PSE) is an emerging branch of Engineering intended to uncover fundamental principles of production systems and utilize them for analysis, continuous improvement, and design.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interface_design">Interface design</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Interface_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Interface design">Interface design</a></div>

<p><a href="Interface_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Interface design">Interface design</a> and its specification are concerned with assuring that the pieces of a system connect and inter-operate with other parts of the system and with external systems as necessary. Interface design also includes assuring that system interfaces are able to accept new features, including mechanical, electrical, and logical interfaces, including reserved wires, plug-space, command codes, and bits in communication protocols. This is known as <a href="Extensibility" title="Extensibility">extensibility</a>. <a href="Human-Computer_Interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-Computer Interaction">Human-Computer Interaction</a> (HCI) or Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is another aspect of interface design and is a critical aspect of modern systems engineering. Systems engineering principles are applied in the design of <a href="Communication_protocols" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication protocols">communication protocols</a> for <a href="Local_area_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Local area networks">local area networks</a> and <a href="Wide_area_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Wide area networks">wide area networks</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechatronic_engineering">Mechatronic engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Mechatronic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechatronic engineering">Mechatronic engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Mechatronic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechatronic engineering">Mechatronic engineering</a>, like systems engineering, is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that uses dynamic systems modeling to express tangible constructs. In that regard, it is almost indistinguishable from Systems Engineering, but what sets it apart is the focus on smaller details rather than larger generalizations and relationships. As such, both fields are distinguished by the scope of their projects rather than the methodology of their practice.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operations_research">Operations research</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></div>

<p><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a> supports systems engineering. Operations research, briefly, is concerned with the optimization of a process under multiple constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performance_engineering">Performance engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Performance_engineering" title="Performance engineering">Performance engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Performance_engineering" title="Performance engineering">Performance engineering</a> is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for performance throughout its life. Performance is usually defined as the speed with which a certain operation is executed or the capability of executing a number of such operations in a unit of time. Performance may be degraded when operations queued to execute are throttled by limited <a href="System_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="System capacity">system capacity</a>. For example, the performance of a <a href="Packet-switched_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Packet-switched network">packet-switched network</a> is characterized by the end-to-end packet transit delay or the number of packets switched in an hour. The design of high-performance systems uses analytical or simulation modeling, whereas the delivery of high-performance implementation involves thorough performance testing. Performance engineering relies heavily on <a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="Queueing_theory" title="Queueing theory">queueing theory</a>, and <a href="Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a> for its tools and processes.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Program_management_and_project_management">Program management and project management</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Program_management" title="Program management">Program management</a></div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></div>

<p><a href="Program_management" title="Program management">Program management</a> (or project management) has many similarities with systems engineering, but has broader-based origins than the engineering ones of systems engineering. <a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a> is also closely related to both program management and systems engineering. Both include <a href="Schedule_(project_management)" title="Schedule (project management)">scheduling</a> as engineering support tool in assessing interdisciplinary concerns under management process. In particular, the direct relationship of resources, performance features, and risk to the duration of a task or the <a href="Dependency_(project_management)" title="Dependency (project management)">dependency</a> links among tasks and impacts across the <a href="System_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="System lifecycle">system lifecycle</a> are systems engineering concerns.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposal_engineering">Proposal engineering</h3></div>

<p>Proposal engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, construct, and operate a cost-effective proposal development system. Basically, proposal engineering uses the "<a href="Systems_engineering_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems engineering process">systems engineering process</a>" to create a cost-effective proposal and increase the odds of a successful proposal.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reliability_engineering">Reliability engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a> is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for reliability throughout its life (i.e. it does not fail more frequently than expected). Next to the prediction of failure, it is just as much about the prevention of failure. Reliability engineering applies to all aspects of the system. It is closely associated with <a href="Maintainability" title="Maintainability">maintainability</a>, <a href="Availability" title="Availability">availability</a> (<a href="Dependability" title="Dependability">dependability</a> or <a href="RAMS" class="mw-redirect" title="RAMS">RAMS</a> preferred by some), and <a href="Integrated_logistics_support" title="Integrated logistics support">integrated logistics support</a>. Reliability engineering is always a critical component of safety engineering, as in <a href="Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis" title="Failure mode and effects analysis">failure mode and effects analysis</a> (FMEA) and <a href="Fault_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault tree">hazard fault tree</a> analysis, and of <a href="Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">security engineering</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Risk_management">Risk management</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></div>

<p><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a>, the practice of assessing and dealing with <a href="Risk" title="Risk">risk</a> is one of the interdisciplinary parts of Systems Engineering. In development, acquisition, or operational activities, the inclusion of risk in tradeoffs with cost, schedule, and performance features, involves the iterative complex configuration management of traceability and evaluation to the scheduling and requirements management across domains and for the <a href="System_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="System lifecycle">system lifecycle</a> that requires the interdisciplinary technical approach of systems engineering. Systems Engineering has Risk Management define, tailor, implement, and monitor a structured process for risk management which is integrated into the overall effort.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safety_engineering">Safety engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></div>

<p>The techniques of <a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a> may be applied by non-specialist engineers in designing complex systems to minimize the probability of safety-critical failures. The "System Safety Engineering" function helps to identify "safety hazards" in emerging designs and may assist with techniques to "mitigate" the effects of (potentially) hazardous conditions that cannot be designed out of systems.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_engineering">Security engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security engineering</a> can be viewed as an <a href="Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field that integrates the <a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">community of practice</a> for control systems design, reliability, safety, and systems engineering. It may involve such sub-specialties as <a href="Authentication" title="Authentication">authentication</a> of system users, system targets, and others: people, objects, and processes.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_engineering">Software engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div>

<p>From its beginnings, <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> has helped shape modern systems engineering practice. The techniques used in the handling of the complexities of large software-intensive systems have had a major effect on the shaping and reshaping of the tools, methods, and processes of Systems Engineering.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Arcadia_(engineering)" title="Arcadia (engineering)">Arcadia (engineering)</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_review_(U.S._government)" title="Design review (U.S. government)">Design review (U.S. government)</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering management</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_information_management" title="Engineering information management">Engineering information management</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_systems_engineering" title="Enterprise systems engineering">Enterprise systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Life-cycle_engineering" title="Life-cycle engineering">Life-cycle engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_production_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of production topics">List of production topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_requirements_engineering_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="List of requirements engineering tools">List of requirements engineering tools</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_systems_engineers" title="List of systems engineers">List of systems engineers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_types_of_systems_engineering" title="List of types of systems engineering">List of types of systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-based_systems_engineering" title="Model-based systems engineering">Model-based systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations management</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_systems_analysis_and_design_method" title="Structured systems analysis and design method">Structured systems analysis and design method</a></li>

<li><a href="System_of_systems_engineering" title="System of systems engineering">System of systems engineering</a> (SoSE)</li>

<li><a href="System_accident" title="System accident">System accident</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_architecture" title="Systems architecture">Systems architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_development_life_cycle" title="Systems development life cycle">Systems development life cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a> (e.g. <a href="Theory_of_constraints" title="Theory of constraints">theory of constraints</a>, <a href="Value-stream_mapping" title="Value-stream mapping">value-stream mapping</a>)</li>

<li><a href="System_information_modelling" title="System information modelling">System information modelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Tricotyledon_theory_of_system_design" title="Tricotyledon theory of system design">Tricotyledon theory of system design</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSageOlson2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Andrew_P._Sage" title="Andrew P. Sage">Sage, Andrew P.</a>; Olson, Stephen R. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071021061349/http://intl-sim.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/76/2/90">"Modeling and Simulation in Systems Engineering"</a>. <i>Simulation</i>. <b>76</b> (2): 90. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003754970107600207">10.1177/003754970107600207</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3016918">3016918</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intl-sim.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/76/2/90">the original</a> on 21 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite></span>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Madhavan, Guru (2024). <i>Wicked Problems: How to Engineer a Better World</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-393-65146-1</bdi></li>

<li>Blockley, D. Godfrey, P. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/book/10.1680/didse.60821">Doing it Differently: Systems for Rethinking Infrastructure, Second Edition</a></i>, ICE Publications, London, 2017.</li>

<li>Buede, D.M., Miller, W.D. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-111902790X.html">The Engineering Design of Systems: Models and Methods, Third Edition</a></i>, John Wiley and Sons, 2016.</li>

<li><a href="Harold_Chestnut" title="Harold Chestnut">Chestnut, H.</a>, <i>Systems Engineering Methods</i>. Wiley, 1967.</li>

<li>Gianni, D. et al. (eds.), <i>Modeling and Simulation-Based Systems Engineering Handbook</i>, CRC Press, 2014 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466571457">at CRC</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_H._Goode" title="Harry H. Goode">Goode, H.H.</a>, Robert E. Machol <i>System Engineering: An Introduction to the Design of Large-scale Systems</i>, McGraw-Hill, 1957.</li>

<li><a href="Derek_Hitchins" title="Derek Hitchins">Hitchins, D.</a> (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609143558/http://hitchins.net/WCSE.html"><i>World Class Systems Engineering</i></a> at hitchins.net.</li>

<li>Lienig, J., Bruemmer, H., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-55840-0"><i>Fundamentals of Electronic Systems Design</i></a>, Springer, 2017 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-319-55839-4</bdi>.</li>

<li>Malakooti, B. (2013). Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives. John Wiley & Sons.<a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-118-58537-5</bdi></li>

<li>MITRE, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mitre.org/publications/systems-engineering-guide/about-the-seg">The MITRE Systems Engineering Guide</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mitre.org/sites/default/files/publications/se-guide-book-interactive.pdf">pdf</a>)</li>

<li>NASA (2007) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20080008301.pdf">Systems Engineering Handbook</a></i>, NASA/SP-2007-6105 Rev1, December 2007.</li>

<li>NASA (2013) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/npg_img/N_PR_7123_001B_/N_PR_7123_001B_.doc">NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161227000207/http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/npg_img/N_PR_7123_001B_/N_PR_7123_001B_.doc">Archived</a> 27 December 2016 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> NPR 7123.1B, April 2013 NASA Procedural Requirements</li>

<li>Oliver, D.W., et al. <i>Engineering Complex Systems with Models and Objects. McGraw-Hill</i>, 1997.</li>

<li>Parnell, G.S., Driscoll, P.J., Henderson, D.L. (eds.), <i>Decision Making in Systems Engineering and Management</i>, 2nd. ed., Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2011. This is a textbook for undergraduate students of engineering.</li>

<li><a href="Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Ramo, S.</a>, St.Clair, R.K. <i>The Systems Approach: Fresh Solutions to Complex Problems Through Combining Science and Practical Common Sense</i>, Anaheim, CA: KNI, Inc, 1998.</li>

<li><a href="Andrew_P._Sage" title="Andrew P. Sage">Sage, A.P.</a>, <i>Systems Engineering</i>. Wiley IEEE, 1992. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-471-53639-3</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Andrew_P._Sage" title="Andrew P. Sage">Sage, A.P.</a>, Olson, S.R., <i>Modeling and Simulation in Systems Engineering</i>, 2001.</li>

<li>SEBOK.org, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sebokwiki.org/wiki/Guide_to_the_Systems_Engineering_Body_of_Knowledge_(SEBoK)">Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK)</a></li>

<li>Shermon, D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gowerpublishing.com/isbn/978056688612"><i>Systems Cost Engineering</i></a>, <a href="Gower_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gower Publishing">Gower Publishing</a>, 2009</li>

<li>Shishko, R., et al. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL23710690M/NASA_systems_engineering_handbook">NASA Systems Engineering Handbook</a></i>. NASA Center for AeroSpace Information, 2005.</li>

<li>Stevens, R., et al. <i>Systems Engineering: Coping with Complexity</i>. Prentice Hall, 1998.</li>

<li>US Air Force, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acqnotes.com/Attachments/SMC%20System%20Engineering%20Handbook.pdf">SMC Systems Engineering Primer & Handbook</a>, 2004</li>

<li>US DoD Systems Management College (2001) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170131231503/http://www.dau.mil/publications/publicationsdocs/sefguide%2001-01.pdf">Systems Engineering Fundamentals</a>.</i> Defense Acquisition University Press, 2001</li>

<li>US DoD <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acq.osd.mil/se/docs/Integrating-SE-Acquisition-Contracts_guide_121106.pdf">Guide for Integrating Systems Engineering into DoD Acquisition Contracts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829061819/http://www.acq.osd.mil/se/docs/Integrating-SE-Acquisition-Contracts_guide_121106.pdf">Archived</a> 29 August 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2006</li>

<li>US DoD <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://everyspec.com/MIL-STD/MIL-STD-0300-0499/MIL-STD-499_10376/">MIL-STD-499 System Engineering Management</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icseng.com/">ICSEng homepage</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.incose.org">INCOSE homepage</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.incoseonline.org.uk">INCOSE UK homepage</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://segoldmine.ppi-int.com/">PPI SE Goldmine homepage</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sebokwiki.org/">Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.systemsengineeringtool.com/">Systems Engineering Tools</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acqnotes.com/acqnote/careerfields/systems-engineering-overview">AcqNotes DoD Systems Engineering Overview</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ndia.org/divisions/divisions/systemsengineering/Pages/default.aspx">NDIA Systems Engineering Division</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Systems_engineering118" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_systems_engineering" title="Biological systems engineering">Biological systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_systems_engineering" title="Cognitive systems engineering">Cognitive systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">Configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_systems_engineering_and_management" title="Earth systems engineering and management">Earth systems engineering and management</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_systems_engineering" title="Enterprise systems engineering">Enterprise systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_systems_engineering" title="Health systems engineering">Health systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Performance_engineering" title="Performance engineering">Performance engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanford_torus" title="Stanford torus">Sociocultural Systems Engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">Requirements engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_Analysis_and_Allocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional Analysis and Allocation">Functional Analysis and Allocation</a></li>

<li><a href="System_integration" title="System integration">System integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Verification_and_validation" title="Verification and validation">Verification and validation</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_review" title="Design review">Design review</a></li>

<li><a href="System_of_systems_engineering" title="System of systems engineering">System of systems engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_process" title="Business process">Business process</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="System" title="System">System</a></li>

<li><a href="System_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="System lifecycle">System lifecycle</a></li>

<li><a href="V-model" title="V-model">V-Model</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_development_life_cycle" title="Systems development life cycle">Systems development life cycle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_model" title="Function model">Function modelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_function_deployment" title="Quality function deployment">Quality function deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Spare_part" title="Spare part">Spare part</a></li>

<li><a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_Modeling_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems Modeling Language">Systems Modeling Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Work_breakdown_structure" title="Work breakdown structure">Work breakdown structure</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_S._Blanchard" title="Benjamin S. Blanchard">Benjamin S. Blanchard</a></li>

<li><a href="Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></li>

<li><a href="Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Chestnut" title="Harold Chestnut">Harold Chestnut</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolt_Fabrycky" title="Wolt Fabrycky">Wolt Fabrycky</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbara_Grosz" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_David_Hall_III" title="Arthur David Hall III">Arthur David Hall III</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Hitchins" title="Derek Hitchins">Derek Hitchins</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_E._Machol" title="Robert E. Machol">Robert E. Machol</a></li>

<li><a href="Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li>

<li><a href="Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Francis_Shea" title="Joseph Francis Shea">Joseph Francis Shea</a></li>

<li><a href="Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li>

<li><a href="John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality management</a></li>

<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science494" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Systems_science494" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="System" title="System">System</a><br>types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li>

<li><a href="Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li>

<li><a href="Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li>

<li><a href="Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li>

<li><a href="Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br>fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li>

<li><a href="Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li>

<li><a href="World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li>

<li><a href="B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li>

<li><a href="Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li>

<li><a href="Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li>

<li><a href="C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li>

<li><a href="Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li>

<li><a href="Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li>

<li><a href="Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li>

<li><a href="Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li>

<li><a href="James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li>

<li><a href="Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li>

<li><a href="Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li>

<li><a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li>

<li><a href="Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li>

<li><a href="Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li>

<li><a href="Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li>

<li><a href="Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li>

<li><a href="Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>

<li><a href="Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li>

<li><a href="Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li>

<li><a href="Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li>

<li><a href="Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3ASystems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Portal</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Systems_theory" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Systems theory">Commons</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Engineering683" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Engineering683" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties<br>and<br><a href="Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li>

<li><a href="Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li>

<li><a href="Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li>

<li><a href="Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/urban</a></li>

<li><a href="Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li>

<li><a href="River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li>

<li><a href="Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li>

<li><a href="Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li>

<li><a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li>

<li><a href="Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li>

<li><a href="Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li>

<li><a href="Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li>

<li><a href="Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio-frequency</a></li>

<li><a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/bioprocess</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li>

<li><a href="Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li>

<li><a href="Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li>

<li><a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Systems_engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systems engineering (disambiguation)">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Master's_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li>

<li><a href="Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineer's_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Engineering

<li><a href="Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a>

<li><a href="Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li>

<li><a href="Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li>

<li><a href="Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate engineering">Climate</a></li>

<li><a href="Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">Instrumentation and control</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> Wikiproject</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3AEngineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Software_engineering336" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Software_engineering336" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></li>

<li><a href="DevOps" title="DevOps">DevOps</a></li>

<li><a href="Empirical_software_engineering" title="Empirical software engineering">Empirical software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_software_engineering" title="Experimental software engineering">Experimental software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">Requirements engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Search-based_software_engineering" title="Search-based software engineering">Search-based software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Site_reliability_engineering" title="Site reliability engineering">Site reliability engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software_engineering" title="Social software engineering">Social software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_testing" title="Software testing">Software testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">Abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_compatibility" title="Computer compatibility">Compatibility</a>

<ul><li><a href="Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">Backward compatibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Compatibility_layer" title="Compatibility layer">Compatibility layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Compatibility_mode" title="Compatibility mode">Compatibility mode</a></li>

<li><a href="Forward_compatibility" title="Forward compatibility">Forward compatibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_incompatibility" title="Software incompatibility">Software incompatibility</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Component-based software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_specification" title="Functional specification">Functional specification</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Software" title="Software">Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_archaeology" title="Software archaeology">Software archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">Software architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process/methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_system" title="Software system">Software system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_verification_and_validation" title="Software verification and validation">Software verification and validation</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_analysis" title="Structured analysis">Structured analysis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Essential_systems_analysis" title="Essential systems analysis">Essential analysis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orientations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspect-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_architecture" title="Service-oriented architecture">Service orientation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Developmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Executable_UML" title="Executable UML">Executable UML</a></li>

<li><a href="Incremental_build_model" title="Incremental build model">Incremental model</a></li>

<li><a href="Iterative_and_incremental_development" title="Iterative and incremental development">Iterative model</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_prototyping" title="Software prototyping">Prototype model</a></li>

<li><a href="Scrum_(software_development)" title="Scrum (software development)">Scrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiral_model" title="Spiral model">Spiral model</a></li>

<li><a href="V-model_(software_development)" title="V-model (software development)">V-model</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterfall_model" title="Waterfall model">Waterfall model</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-driven_engineering" title="Model-driven engineering">Model-driven engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Round-trip_engineering" title="Round-trip engineering">Round-trip engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Data_model" title="Data model">Data model</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">ER model</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_model" title="Function model">Function model</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_model" title="Information model">Information model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamodeling" title="Metamodeling">Metamodeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_model" title="Object model">Object model</a></li>

<li><a href="ISO/IEC_15504" title="ISO/IEC 15504">SPICE</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems model</a></li>

<li><a href="View_model" title="View model">View model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Systems_modeling_language" title="Systems modeling language">SysML</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design">Systems design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Software_requirements_specification" title="Software requirements specification"> Requirements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Functional_requirement" title="Functional requirement">Functional requirement</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-functional_requirement" title="Non-functional requirement">Non-functional requirement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Capacity_planning" title="Capacity planning"> Capacity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_users" title="Active users"> Users</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_processing_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Central processing units"> Compute</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory"> Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"> Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)"> Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_traffic" title="Web traffic">Web traffic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)"> Interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="GraphQL" title="GraphQL">GraphQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Webhook" title="Webhook">Webhook</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="High-level_design" title="High-level design">High-level design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)"> Client</a></li>

<li><a href="Load_balancing_(computing)" title="Load balancing (computing)"> Load balancing</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_server" title="Application server">Application server</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_queue" title="Message queue">Message queue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="System_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="System Integration"> Integration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration"> Vertical</a></li>

<li><a href="API_management" title="API management"> API Gateway</a></li>

<li><a href="Event_store" title="Event store"> Event Source</a></li>

<li><a href="Batch_processing" title="Batch processing"> Batch</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Stream</a></li>

<li><a href="Orchestration_(computing)" title="Orchestration (computing)"> Orchestration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Architectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectures">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Monolithic_application" title="Monolithic application"> Monolithic</a></li>

<li><a href="Microservices" title="Microservices">Microservices</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_architecture" title="Event-driven architecture"> Event-Driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model"> Client–server</a></li>

<li><a href="Serverless_computing" title="Serverless computing"> Serverless</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker_design_pattern" title="Circuit breaker design pattern"> Circuit breaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Rate_limiting" title="Rate limiting">Rate limiting</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Database" title="Database">Database</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database"> Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_database" title="Graph database"> Graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Key%E2%80%93value_database" title="Key–value database"> Key–value</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_series_database" title="Time series database"> Time series</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_orientation" title="Data orientation"> Column Oriented</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design"> Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consistency_(database_systems)" title="Consistency (database systems)">Consistency</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability</a></li>

<li><a href="CAP_theorem" title="CAP theorem">CAP theorem</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance"> Maintainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_configuration" title="Computer configuration"> Configurability</a></li>

<li><a href="Modularity" title="Modularity">Modularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Durability_(database_systems)" title="Durability (database systems)"> Durability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Scalability" title="Scalability">Scalability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Service_statelessness_principle" title="Service statelessness principle"> Stateless</a></li>

<li><a href="Asynchronous_I/O" title="Asynchronous I/O">Asynchronous I/O</a></li>

<li><a href="Loose_coupling" title="Loose coupling">Loose coupling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Availability" title="Availability">Availability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Failover" title="Failover">Failover</a></li>

<li><a href="Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)"> Replication</a></li>

<li><a href="Consistent_hashing" title="Consistent hashing">Consistent hashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker_design_pattern" title="Circuit breaker design pattern"> Circuit breaker</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">Latency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cache_(computing)" title="Cache (computing)"> Cache</a></li>

<li><a href="Shard_(database_architecture)" title="Shard (database architecture)"> Shard </a></li>

<li><a href="Database_index" title="Database index">Database index</a></li>

<li><a href="Cache_prefetching" title="Cache prefetching"> Pre-caching</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"> Storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Object_storage" title="Object storage">Object storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Block-level_storage" title="Block-level storage"> Block storage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Observability_(software)" title="Observability (software)"> Observability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Logging_(computing)" title="Logging (computing)"> Logging</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_metric" title="Software metric"> Metrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Tracing_(software)" title="Tracing (software)"> Tracing </a></li>

<li><a href="Failure_rate" title="Failure rate"> Error rate </a></li>

<li><a href="Queries_per_second" title="Queries per second">Queries per second </a></li>

<li><a href="Notification_system" title="Notification system">Notification system</a></li>

<li><a href="Anomaly_detection" title="Anomaly detection">Anomaly detection</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></li>

<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Software_engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Software engineering">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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